My Dictionary 7

IMMUNE RESPONSE CYTOKINES

Interleukins (ILs): As their name suggests, ILs signal among leukocytes, though cells other than leukocytes may also use interleukins.  Immunologists named interleukins sequentially as they were discovered.  Currently, scientists have identified about 35 interleukins. 

Interferons (IFNs): These antiviral protiens may also act as cytokines.  The most important interferon with such a dual function is gamma interferon, which is a potent phagocytic activator secreted by Th1-cells. 

Growth Factors: These proteins stimulate leukocyte stem cells to divide, ensuring that the body is supplied with sufficient white blood cells of all types.  The body can control the progression of an adaptive immune response by limiting the production of growth factors. 

Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF): Macrophages and T cells secrete TNF to kill tumor cells and to regulate immune responses and inflammation.

Chemokines: Chemokines are chemotactic cytokines; that is, they signal leukocytes to move- for example, to rush to a site of inflammation or infection, or to move within tissues. 

My Dictionary 6

MODES OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE TRANSMISSION

An infectious disease must be transmitted from either a reservoir or a portal of exit to another host's  portal of entry.  Transmission can occur by numerous modes that are somewhat arbitrary categorized into three groups: contact transmission, vehicle transmission, and vector transmission.

CONTACT TRANSMISSION 
 
Direct Contact Transmission: including person-person spread, typically involves body contact between hosts.  Touching, kissing, and sexual intercourse are involved in the transmission of such diseases as warts, herpes, and gonorrhea.  

Indirect Contact Transmission: occurs when pathogens are spread from one host to another by fomites, which are inanimate objects that are inadvertently used to transfer pathogens to new hosts.  

Droplet Transmission: pathogens can be transmitted within droplet nuclei (droplets of mucous) that exit the body during exhaling, coughing, and sneezing.  
 

VEHICLE TRANSMISSION 

The spread of pathogens via air, drinking water, and food, as well as bodily fluids being handled outside the body.

Ex. Airborne Transmission, Waterborne Transmission, and Foodborne Transmission 
 
VECTOR TRANSMISSION

Are animals that transmit diseases from one host to another.

Ex. Biological Vectors and Mechanical Vectors

My Dictionary 5

The Stages of Infectious Diseases 

Incubation Period: this is the time between infection and occurrence of the first symptoms or signs of disease.

Prodromal Period: this is a short time of generalized, mild symptoms (such as malaise and muscle aches) that proceeds illness.  Not all infections disease have a prodromal stage.

Illness: This is the most severe stage of an infectious disease.Signs and symptoms are most evident during this time.

Decline: This is the time that the body gradually returns to normal as the patient's immune response and/or medical treatment vanquish the pathogens.  Fever an other signs and symptoms subside. 

Convalescence: This is the time when the patient recovers from the illness; tissues are repaired and returned to normal. 

My Dictionary 4

Koch's Postulates 

1. The suspected agent (bacterium, virus, etc.) must be present in every case of the disease.

2. That agent must be isolated and grown in pure culture.

3. The cultured agent must cause the disease when it is inoculated into a healthy, susceptible experimental host.

4. The same agent must be re-isolated from the diseased experimental host. 

Germ Theory of Disease

This states that disease is caused by infections of pathogenic microorganisms (at the time, called germs)

My Investigation 2: What Causes Us to Sneeze?

For this week I decided to do my investigation on what causes us to sneeze.  During this week in class we learned about innate immunity and it reminded me that our skin and mucous membranes of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive system are the first line of defense in the body.  We never discussed in class what causes us to sneeze in complete depth however. In the article entitled What Causes Sneezing it basically explains what causes us to sneeze.  It states that
" It's the body's attempt to get rid of some material in the nasal passages ( Ellis-Christensen, 2013)."  As for me a person may have a runny nose from a cold or flu, which causes the mucous membranes in the sinus passages to become irritated. The body responds by attempting to clear these passages through its first line of defense by causing an individual to sneeze.

The article also states that "At other times, allergies to pollens, dust, or molds cause sneezing. The nose, which is acting as a filtration device, works to remove these allergens from the body by expelling them. Since allergies entering the nose are often made up of tiny particles, it may take multiple attempts to do the trick of removing irritants ( Ellis-Christensen, 2013)."  In conclusion, the nasal passages are good at detecting when an irritant has invaded it and will do all it can to get rid of it and therefore, we sneeze. 


Ellis-Christensen, T. (2013, March 29). What causes sneezing?. Retrieved from                                     http://www.wisegeek.org/what-causes-sneezing.htm 



Interesting Fact:   The longest sneezing spree was 978 days, a record set by Donna Griffiths of Worcestershire, England, according to background information on the Library of Congress' web site.

My Reflection 2

This past week we have been learning about controlling microbial growth in the environment.  What I had found interesting about reading this chapter the most was in the beginning when there was a short paragraph of how the chapter we were studying connected to the real world.  It was intresting to me to read because its's not like we discussed it in class.  It was this paragraph that brought to my attention that wearing contact lenses is seriously risky.  Uncommon but serious infections, such as bacterial keratitis have been linked to contact use.  Acanthamoeba, a protozoan can result from using contaminated lens-care solutions or rinsing contact lenses in tap water.  This was the part that scared me the most because I reflected back into my past when I would be somewhere like a movie theater or even church and my contacts would dry out.  There have been plenty of cases that I have resorted to a bathroom sink and tap water as a means of revitalizing my dried up contact lense.  Little did I know that I was potentially setting myself up for infection.  Fortunately I never experienced any type of infection due to my contact lenses ever, but with the knowledge that I now know about the dangers of rinsing contact lenses in tap water, I will not only avoid it, but inform others about not doing it as well. 

                                     Caused by Contact Lenses: Conjunctivitis under the eyelid 
This particuler subject fits into my career goals simply because I want to be a healthcare professional in the futrure.  It will be my duty to inform patients or people in general the ways of proper hygiene to avoid contamination or infection.   This information does not conflict with another course but gives me a better understanding of this current course and my own personal hygiene.  In terms of my engagment in the learning process, I see myself as a visual learner.  When I see things more, information seems to just click to me.  Also repetition helps me remember more information efficiently.  I would like to try more audio ways of learning just because sometimes it does help when I hear things said to me clearly and audible.  I've tried videos amd those seem to help especially if there are pictures, and diagrams in addition to the audio.  The two most important things that I've learned so far in this chapter was to one, take hygiene seriously when it comes to wearing contact lenses and two, always try to find something visual about a subject in order to help me learn better.  This information has impacted my life positively because now I know what not to do when it comes to my contact lenses.  I take better caution with my lenses by making sure I use the right cleansing material to clean the lenses and making sure I wash my hands before and after usage. 

My Reflection

This past week we have been learning about infection, infectious diseases, and epidemiology.  We've discussed the symbiotic relationships between microbes and their hosts, how normal microbiota become opportunistic pathogens, and even different portals of entry in which pathogens enter the body.  This information is particularly relevant in my future career goals because I plan on becoming a nurse.   Knowing how infections are spread and their effects on the body is important to know to better care for my patients in the future.  This semester I am learning information that helps me understand Nutrition.  In nutrition we learn about different enzymes, foods, and processes that affect the human body for either better or worse. Having a good understanding in microbiology helps me significantly because then I am hearing the information twice by having nutrition class and I'm remembering the information a lot more efficiently.  

In terms of my engagement in the learning process, I would have to say I am a visual learning.  I retain more information when I can either see diagrams, maps, or even videos of the same information we learn in class.  I like using different color highlighters in my textbook to mark important points to remember it better.  I actually would be open to learning using different styles because at the end of the day, I know how I can learn efficiently.  So if a different mode doesn't work for me I can always go back to what I've been doing before. 

My Encounter 2

This week I encountered microbiology before my very eyes in the girls bathroom of Wilkinson Hall.  It was a Wednesday evening and I am just getting out from working at the school bookstore.  After I close, I usually go to the restroom just to wash my hands because for the past 3 and half hours I was touching and handling money.  I like washing my hands after work because that's also the time that I decide to have dinner in the cafe.

It was to my dismay that as I walk into the bathroom, a female exited a stall after flushing the toilet without washing her hands.  I was disgusted as she touched the handle of the door that I potentially could have touched right after her if I had not seen what she did.  I began to think about the different bacteria that now existed on that door handle as I continued on to wash my hands.  While drying my hands, I made a conscience decision not to touch that handle bar and use another paper towel as a barrier.  If I did not make that decision I am positive that I would be coming down with some kind of sickness as of now.

This relates to Microbiology class because bacteria exist everywhere.  This class teaches us of the various types of bacteria that exist, some good and some bad.  After being in that bathroom that day, I'm positive that there was nothing but bad bacteria all over that door handle.  I began to remember how in class we talked about different ways of preventing the spread of pathogenic microorganisms through proper sanitation, disinfection, or even sterilizing objects. 

My Dictionary 3

Sterilization:

 refers to the removal or destruction of all microbes, including viruses, and bacterial endospores, in or on an object.

Aseptic:

describes an environment or procedure that is free of contamination by pathogens.

Disinfection:

refers to the use of physical or chemical agents known as disinfectants to inhibit or destroy microorganisms, especially pathogens.


Degerming:

is the removal of microbes from a surface by scrubbing, such as when you wash your hands.


Sanitation:

is the process of disinfecting places  and utensils used by the public to reduce the number of pathogenic microbes to meet accepted public health standards.


Pasteurization:

is the  use of heat to kill pathogens and reduce the number of spoilage microorganisms in food and beverages. 

My Dictionary 2

The Transfer of Genetic Information 

 

Transcription:  the information is copied as RNA nucleotide sequences 

 

Translation:  RNA molecules  in ribosomes then synthesize polypeptides 

 

Central Dogma:  DNA is transcribed to RNA; which is translated to form polypeptides

Events in Transcription 

RNA Primer:  molecules for DNA polymerase to use during DNA replication

Messenger RNA (mRNA):  molecules which carry genetic information from chromosomes to  ribosomes 

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):  molecules which combine with ribosomal polypeptides to form ribosomes

Transfer RNA (tRNA):  molecules which deliver the correct sequence of amino acids to ribosomes based on the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA

My Investigation: Nosocomial Infections

I found in an online article entitled "Nosocomial Infections" that these infections are defined as thosie occurring within 48 hours of hospital admission, 3 days of discharge or 30 days of an operation.  I decided to do my investigation on nosocomial infections because recently I was admitted in the hospital because I thought I had an infection in my throat.  I sought out to see a doctor about it and began to wonder about the different nosocomial infections I could possibly catch while being there.  This article that I found described what these infections are, how one can catch them, and some statistics here and there.  Some of the key points mentioned that "one in ten patients will acquire a nosocomial infection, a third of nosocomial infections are preventable, and hand washing is the best preventative measure against the spread of infection." 

In the article it also mentions that "Gram-positive bacteria are the commonest cause of nosocomial infections with Staphylococcus aureus being the predominant pathogen. There has been an increase in the rate of antibiotic resistant bacteria associated with nosocomial infections in ICU."  This brought my attention to what we were learning about in class.  We spoke about Gram-positive bacterial cells and Gram-Negative.  This lead me to my book to refresh my mind what a gram-positive bacterial cell consists of.  On page 64 of the Microbiology with diseases by Taxonomy, it says that gram-positive bacterial cell walls have a relatively thick layer of peptidoglycan that also contain unique chemicals called teichoic acids. 

Both of these sources allowed me to really think about the possibilities of catching a nosocomial infection in a heath care facility.  It connected well with the what we have been learning in class in regards to gram-positive bacterium. 

Citations:

Bauman, Robert W. Microbiology with Diseases by Taxonomy . 3rd Edition. San Francisco: Pearson   Education , 2011. 64-65. Print.

Inweregbu, Ken, Jayshree Dave, and Alison Pittard. "Nosocomial Infections." Oxford Journals . 5.1 (2005): 14-17. Web. 8 Feb. 2013. <http://ceaccp.oxfordjournals.org/content/5/1/14.full>. 


From my understandings, this journal is from a peer-reviewed journal since there are so many people involved in creating the journal and also the many references indicated towards the bottom of the article.  The article is not from a newspaper and this site was published in 2005.  In terms of bias, the article is talking about the nosocomial infections that occur in a health care facility.  It does not really go both ways since there isn't two sides really to the topic.  This source is not an advertisement either.  

 

My Dictionary

Bright-Field Microscopes: There are two kinds

1. Simple Microscopes:  These were the microscopes in which Leeuwenhoek first reported his observations of microoraganisms.  This contains a a single magnifying lens that was capable of approximately 300x magnification and acheived excellent clarity. 

2. Uses a series of lenses for magnification.  These microscopes replaced the simple microsope in modern laboratories. 

Dark-Field Microscopes:  These microscopes utilize a dark-field stop in the condenser that prevents light from directly entering the objectiev lens.  Instead, light rays are reflected inside the condenser so that they pass into the slide at such an oblique angle that they miss the objective lens.  Only those light rays that are scattered by the specimen enter the objective lens and are seen, so the specimen appears light against a dark background. 

Phase Microscopes:  These microscopes are utilized by scientists to examine living microorganisms or specimens that would be damaged or altered by attaching them to slides or staining them.  Basically, these microscopes treat one set of light rays differently from another set of light rays. 

                                                           The working principle




Confocal Microscopes:  These microscopes use fluorescent dyes or fluorescent antibodies, but these microscopes use ultraviolet lasers to illuminate the fluorescent chemicals in only a single plane; the rest of the specimen remains dark and out of focus. 

 

 

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM): This microscope generates a beam of electrons that ultimately produces an image on a fluorescent screen.  The path of electrons is similar to the path of light in a light microscope.

 

My Encounter

Lately, it has been very cold outside due to the winter season and unfortunately I became sick.  Normally back home my dad would always tell me to drink some lime juice and honey which is an ultime Jamaican remedy that has been passed down from generation to generation.  My father is absolutely anti-hospital and always referred to natural ways to battling any kind of sickness including my colds.  While I was sick I would drink my fathers lime juice and honey mixture and shortly after would be  completely normal again after just a few days.  I would always wonder, what is it in that mixture that makes me heal from my sick so fast.  As I do some research of my own, I began to see that honey is in fact, "The World's Sweetest Antibiotic." 

 In one of my articles I found a combination of five different components that honey is made from that assist in killing bacteria.

• Hydrogen peroxide (Bleach):  The honey enzyme called glucose oxidase makes hydrogen peroxide when honey is diluted with water.  An example would be toilet cleaners that we clean toilets with and they're pretty good at killing bacteria.
• Sugar:  Honey has alot of sugar, making it hard for water to be present and as a result, prevents bacteria to grow.
•  Methylglyoxal (Antibacterial Compound):  It’s also found in medical grade honey which is made in controlled greenhouses.
• Bee defensin 1(Protein):  This has been identified in honey, and it works as an antibiotic.
•  Acid:  Diluted honey has a pH of around 3.5 so the acidic environment slows down bacterial growth.

In the second article I found the breakdown results of two different types of honeys that worked significantly better than an antibiotic against MSSA and MRSA.

Results

• Sidr honey was 63% effective in killing MSSA.
• Sidr honey was 73% effective in killing MRSA.
• Sidr honey was 91% effective in killing PA.
• Manuka honey was 82% effective in killing MSSA.
• Manuka honey was 63% effective in killing MRSA.
• Manuka honey was 91% effective in killing PA.



The latest study, by Dr Sarah Maddocks, has found manuka honey is effective against the bacteria Streptococcus pyogenes, which can make wounds hard to treat



Sources:

1.     http://www.webmd.com/cold-and-flu/news/20080922/humble-honey-kills-bacteria

2.     http://www.aschoonerofscience.com/recent-research/worlds-sweetest-antibiotic-the-five-ways-honey-kills-bacteria/